PREFACE xiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xv
PART I POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY 1
1 Theory 3
1.1 Symbols 3
1.2 How a Compressor Works 4
1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 8
1.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 8
1.5 Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws 9
1.5.1 Boyle’s Law 9
1.5.2 Charles’ Law 9
1.5.3 Amonton’s Law 9
1.5.4 Dalton’s Law 9
1.5.5 Amagat’s Law 10
1.5.6 Avogadro’s Law 10
1.5.7 Perfect Gas Formula 10
1.6 Vapor Pressure 11
1.7 Gas and Vapor 11
1.8 Partial Pressures 11
1.9 Critical Conditions 13
1.10 Compressibility 13
1.11 Generalized Compressibility Charts 14
1.12 Gas Mixtures 15
1.13 The Mole
1.14 Specific Volume and Density 16
1.15 Volume Percent of Constituents 16
1.16 Molecular Weight of a Mixture 16
1.17 Specific Gravity and Partial Pressure 17
1.18 Ratio of Specific Heats 17
1.19 Pseudo-critical Conditions and Compressibility 18
1.20 Weight-Basis Items 18
1.21 Compression Cycles 19
1.22 Power Requirement 20
1.23 Compressibility Correction 21
1.24 Multiple Staging 22
1.25 Volume References 23
1.26 Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency 24
1.27 Cylinder Clearance and Compression Efficiency 27
Reference 27
2 Reciprocating Process Compressor Design Overview 29
2.1 Crankshaft Design 33
2.2 Bearings and Lubrication Systems 37
2.3 Connecting Rods 37
2.4 Crossheads 38
2.5 Frames and Cylinders 39
2.6 Cooling Provisions 45
2.7 Pistons 47
2.8 Piston and Rider Rings 47
2.9 Valves 48
2.10 Piston Rods 51
2.11 Packings 55
2.12 Cylinder Lubrication 55
2.13 Distance Pieces 56
2.14 Reciprocating Compressor Modernization
2.14.1 Cylinder Upgrades 59
2.14.2 Design for Easy Maintenance 59
2.14.3 Crosshead Designs and Attention to Reliable Lubrication 61
2.14.4 Materials
Compressors are a vital link in the conversion of raw materials into refined products.
Compressors also handle economical use and transformation of energy from one form into
another. They are used for the extraction of metals and minerals in mining operations, for
the conservation of energy in natural gas reinjection plants, for secondary recovery
processes in oil fields, for the utilization of new energy sources such as shale oil and tar
sands, for furnishing utility or reaction air, for oxygen and reaction gases in almost any
process, for process chemical and petrochemical plants, and for the separation and lique�faction of gases in air separation plants and in LPG and LNG plants. And, as the reader will undoubtedly know, this listing does not even begin to describe the literally hundreds of services that use modern compression equipment.
The economy and feasibility of all these applications depend on the reliability of com�pressors and the capability of the compressors selected to handle a given gas at the desiredcapacity. It is well known that only turbocompressors made large process units such as ammonia plants, ethylene plants, and base-load LNG plants technically and economically feasible. Conversely, there are applications where only a judiciously designed positive dis�placement compressor will be feasible, or economical, or both. These compressors could take the form of piston-type reciprocating machines, helical screw machines intended for true oil-free operation, liquid-injected helical screw machines, or others. All, of course,demand performance of the highest reliability and availability.
These two requirements form the cornerstone of the development programs under way at the design and manufac�turing facilities of the world’s leading equipment producers.Today, the petrochemical and other industries are facing intense global competition,which in turn has created a need for lower-cost equipment. Making this equipment without compromising quality, efficiency, and reliability is not easy, and only the industrial world’s best manufacturers measure up to the task. Equally important, only a contemplative, informed,and discerning equipment purchaser or equipment user can be expected to spot the right combination of these two desirable and seemingly contradictory requirements: low cost and high quality.
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